Report Contents

Report#:EIA/DOE-0573(98)

November 5, 1999 
(Next Release: November,  2000)

1. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Climate Change 1995: The Science of Climate Change (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1996), p. 57. See also web site www.ipcc.ch.

2. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Climate Change 1995: The Science of Climate Change (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1996), p. 5.

3. Note, however, that changing air temperature from other causes will change the equilibrium amount of water vapor contained in the atmosphere. This may be a "feedback" effect acting to accelerate or slow global climate change.

4. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Climate Change 1995: The Science of Climate Change (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1996), p. 77.

5. One metric ton equals 1.102 short tons.

6. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has set a National Ambient Air Quality Standard for acceptable atmospheric concentrations of ozone at 0.12 parts per million. The standard was set on the basis that concentrations of this magnitude could cause respiratory distress in vulnerable individuals. Higher concentrations (above 0.3 parts per million) would cause respiratory distress for most individuals.

7. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Climate Change 1995: The Science of Climate Change (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1996), p. 22.

8. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Climate Change 1994: Radiative Forcing of Climate Change (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1995).

9. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Climate Change 1995: The Science of Climate Change (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1996).

10. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Climate Change 1995: The Science of Climate Change (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1996), p. 122.

11. The Framework Convention was "adopted" by a vote of the conference of the parties on May 9th, while the signatures and ratifications of member states flowed in over a period of years. The treaty "entered into force" in 1994. There is a discussion of the development of the Convention in D. Bodanzky, "Prologue to the Climate Convention," in I. Mintzer and J.A. Leonard (eds.), Negotiating Climate Change: The Inside Story of the Rio Convention (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1994), pp. 49-66.

12. The official text of the Framework Convention can be found at web site www.unfccc.de/index.html.

13. The Annex I grouping has undergone a number of changes. Russia, the Ukraine, Latvia, Estonia, and Lithuania (but not the Central Asian Republics) are now part of Annex I. Belarus participated for a while but did not join the Kyoto Protocol. Turkey initially joined the Convention but subsequently asked to withdraw from Annex I status and did not join the Kyoto Protocol. Czechoslovakia has divided into the Czech Republic and Slovakia, and two Yugoslav successor states, Croatia and Slovenia, have joined Annex I. Lichtenstein and Monaco have also joined the Kyoto Protocol. In June 1999, Kazakhstan applied for Annex I status.

14. The text of the Kyoto Protocol can also be found at web site www.unfccc.de/index.html.

15. Several Eastern European states have been permitted to use emissions from the late 1980s, rather than 1990, as their baseline. All signatories may elect to use 1995 emissions of HFCs, PFCs, and sulfur hexafluoride as the baseline rather than 1990 emissions.

16. Article II, Section 2, of the Constitution reads, in part: "He [the President] shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, to make treaties, provided two thirds of the Senators present concur . . . ."

17. Statement by the Press Secretary, the White House, November 12, 1998. See web site www.whitehouse.gov.

18. This difference of view manifested itself at the fourth meeting of the Conference of the Parties in Buenos Aires in November 1998. The Argentine government expressed a desire to accept voluntarily an emissions reduction commitment, and the United States and other governments asked that the question of voluntary commitments be placed on the agenda for discussion. China and the "Group of 77" developing countries opposed inclusion of this item on the conference agenda, and the topic was not formally discussed. See Position Paper of the Group of 77 and China on the Provisional Agenda, FCCC/SBI/1998/MISC.3, web site www.unfccc.de/resource/docs/1998/ sbi/misc03.htm.

19. Energy Information Administration, Short-Term Energy Outlook, DOE/EIA-0202(99/4Q) (Washington, DC, October 1999).

20. U.S. Department of Energy and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Report to the President on Carbon Dioxide Emissions from the Generation of Electric Power in the United States, Draft Report (Washington, DC, September 29, 1999).

21. The percentage is based on 1994, the last year for which manufacturing data are available. The calculation is 371.1 divided by 466.2.

22. See: Chemical Manufacturers Association, U.S. Chemical Industry Statistical Handbook 1998 (Arlington, VA, August 1999), and American Iron & Steel Institute, Iron and Steel Annual Statistical Report 1998 (Washington, DC, 1999).

23. U.S. Department of Energy and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Report to the President on Carbon Dioxide Emissions from the Generation of Electric Power in the United States, Draft Report (Washington, DC, September 29, 1999).

24. More details are included in Appendix A, "Estimation Methods."

25. For a definition of global warming potential, see Chapter 1.

26. Wherever possible, estimates of methane emissions are based on measured data. In some cases, however, measured data are incomplete or unavailable. In the absence of measured data, emissions are calculated by multiplying some known activity data, such as coal production or natural gas throughput, by an emissions factor derived from a small sample of the relevant emissions source or through laboratory experiments. For a more detailed discussion of where measured data were used and how emissions factors were developed, see Appendix A. The absence of measured emissions data for most sources of methane emissions and the reliance on emissions factors represent a source of uncertainty (see Appendix C).

27. See Appendix D, "Emissions Sources Excluded," for a discussion of emissions from abandoned coal mines.

28. A gassy mine is defined as emitting more than 100,000 cubic feet of methane per day.

29. The EPA believes that a significant portion of methane recovery from coal mines should not be deducted from current-year emissions, because the gas is being drained from coal seams that will be mined only in future years, if at all. The relationship between estimates of emissions from degasification and estimates of gas recovery is under review and may be revised in a future report.

30. The EPA estimates that the companies participating in the Natural Gas STAR program together avoided more than 384,000 metric tons of methane emissions in 1998. Program participants avoided 94,000 metric tons in 1993, 157,000 metric tons in 1994, 201,000 metric tons in 1995, 226,000 metric tons in 1996, and 318,000 metric tons in 1997. Program participants report annually on emissions reductions achieved through such activities as equipment replacement, enhanced inspection and maintenance, and improved operations management. Participating companies may either use their own techniques to estimate reductions achieved or employ default values developed by the EPA and the Gas Research Institute.

31. Energy Information Administration, Renewable Energy Annual 1998, DOE/EIA-0603(98) (Washington, DC, December 1998), p. 49.

32. "Nationwide Survey: The State of Garbage in America, 1998," Biocycle (April 1999).

33. M. McGuigan and W.G. Vogt, SCS Engineers, "Greenhouse Gas Emission Reductions from U.S. Landfill Gas Utilization Projects: Landfills to the Rescue." Presented at the 22nd Annual Landfill Gas Symposium (Orlando, FL, March 1999).

34. See web site www.epa.gov/lmop/projects.htm.

35. U.S. Department of Agriculture, National Agricultural and Statistics Service, Livestock, Dairy and Poultry Branch, web site http://usda.mannlib.cornell.edu.

36. Swine populations are also being concentrated in larger facilities, which are more likely to manage waste in ways that promote methane generation. As better data and estimation methods become available, this phenomenon may be reflected in upward revisions of estimated emissions from this source.

37. U.S. Department of Agriculture, National Agricultural and Statistics Service, Livestock, Dairy and Poultry Branch, web site http://usda.mannlib.cornell.edu.

38. A liquid-based manure management system, characterized by waste residing in water to a depth of at least 6 feet for a period ranging between 30 and 200 days.

39. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks 1990-1997, EPA-236-R-99-003 (Washington, DC, April 1999), p. 5-20.

40. A.R. Mosier, "Nitrous Oxide Emissions from Agricultural Soils," in A.R. van Amstel (ed.), International IPCC Workshop Proceedings: Methane and Nitrous Oxide, Methods in National Emissions Inventories and Options for Control (Bilthoven, Netherlands: RIVM, 1993), p. 277.

41. A.F. Bouwman, "Exchange of Greenhouse Gases Between Terrestrial Ecosystems and the Atmosphere," in A.F. Bouwman (ed.), Soils and the Greenhouse Effect (New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons, 1990).

42. "Nationwide Survey: The State of Garbage In America," Biocycle Magazine (1988-1999).

43. Biochemical oxygen demand is a measure of the organic content within the wastewater that is subject to decomposition.

44. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, web site apps.fao.org/lim500/nph-wrap.pl.

45. M.H. Thiemens and W.C. Trogler, "Nylon Production: An Unknown Source of Atmospheric Nitrous Oxide," Science, Vol. 251, No. 4996 (February 1991).

46. Radian Corporation, Nitrous Oxide Emissions From Adipic Acid Manufacturing (Rochester, NY, January 1992), p. 10.

47. R.A. Reimer, R.A. Parrett, and C.S. Slaten, "Abatement of N₂O Emissions Produced in Adipic Acid," in Proceedings of the Fifth International Workshop on Nitrous Oxide Emissions (Tsukuba, Japan, July 1992).

48. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks 1990-1997, EPA-236-R-99-003 (Washington, DC, April 1999).

49. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks 1990-1997, EPA-236-R-99-003 (Washington, DC, April 1999).

50. "Fluorocarbon Outlook Turns Bullish," Chemical Market Reporter (May 25, 1998).

51. See web site www.epa.gov/oiamount/egei3.htm.

52. Information obtained during oral communication with Ford Motor Company representatives.

53. Form EIA-1605 is a greenhouse gas emissions and emissions reductions reporting form, which is submitted to EIA on a voluntary basis by entities interested in creating a public record of their emissions reduction activities.

54. American Automobile Manufacturers Association, Motor Vehicle Facts and Figures 96 (Detroit, MI, 1999).

55. "Fluorocarbon Outlook Turns Bullish," Chemical Market Reporter (May 25, 1998).

56. "HFC-134a Prices Rise as Market Tightens," Chemical Market Reporter (March 15, 1999).

57. Alternative Fluorocarbons Environmental Acceptability Study, Production, Sales and Atmospheric Release of Fluorocarbons Through 1997, web site www.afeas.org/prodsales_download.html.

58. "HFC-134a Prices Rise as Market Tightens," Chemical Market Reporter (March 15, 1999).

59. "HFC Shortage Looms Because of Producers' Fears," Chemical Market Reporter (April 26, 1999).

60. "HFC-134a Prices Rise as Market Tightens," Chemical Market Reporter (March 15,1999).

61. "DuPont Set To Expand Markets for Ozone-Safe HFC-152a Product," Ozone Depletion Online Today (Alexandria, VA, June 9, 1995).

62. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks 1990-1997, Review Draft (Washington, DC, March 1999), pp. 87-88, web site www.epa.gov/globalwarming/inventory/1999-inv.html.

63. "PFCs Can Be Recycled with New Technology," American Institute of Chemical Engineers, Press Release (March 12, 1997).

64. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air and Radiation, Climate Protection Division, personal communication, August 29, 1996.

65. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks 1990-1997, EPA-236-R-99-003 (Washington, DC, April 1999), web site www.epa.gov/globalwarming/inventory/1999-inv.html.

66. On the other hand, 3M has begun to market C₃F₈ to the semiconductor industry as a substitute for CF₄ and C₂F₆.

67. "Environmental Protection Drives Emissions Reduction Effort," Electronic Design (December 1, 1997).

68. "EPA Launches PFC Reduction Program," Chemical Week (July 31, 1996). Without emissions control efforts, PFC emissions would be expected to rise as the use of PFCs in the semiconductor industry increases.

69. D. Schiff and M. Sciannamea, "Greenlook," Electronic Design (December 15, 1997).

70. M.K.W. Ko, N.D. Sze, W.C. Wang, G. Shia, A. Goldman, F.J. Murcray, D.G. Murcray, and C.P. Rinsland, "Atmospheric Sulfur Hexafluoride: Sources, Sinks, and Greenhouse Warming," Journal of Geophysical Research, Vol. 98 (1993), p. 10,500.

71. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks 1990-1997, EPA-236-R-99-003 (Washington, DC, April 1999), web site www.epa.gov/globalwarming/inventory/1999-inv.html.

72. The current (amended) text of the Montreal Protocol can be found at web site www.unep.org/unep/secretar/ozone/treaties.htm.

73. U.S. International Trade Commission, Synthetic Organic Chemicals: United States Production and Sales, 1993 (Washington, DC, November 1994), p. 3-21.

74. U.S. International Trade Commission, Synthetic Organic Chemicals: United States Production and Sales, 1994 (Washington, DC, March 1995), p. 3-21.

75. U.S. International Trade Commission, Synthetic Organic Chemicals: United States Production and Sales, 1993 (Washington, DC, November 1994), p. 3-21.

76. Alternative Fluorocarbons Environmental Acceptability Study, Production, Sales and Atmospheric Release of Fluorocarbons Through 1996 (Washington, DC, January 1998), p. 10.

77. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Ozone Depleter Compliance Guide (Washington, DC, March 1998).

78. "Justice Department Adds to CFC Indictments," Ozone Depletion Today (Alexandria, VA, February 27, 1998).

79. U.S Environmental Protection Agency, Ozone Depleter Compliance Guide (Washington, DC, March 1998).

80. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1997 Toxics Release Inventory (Washington, DC, April 1999), p. 2-66, web site www.epa.gov/ opptintr/tri/pdr99/drhome.htm.

81. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1997 Toxics Release Inventory (Washington, DC, April 1999), p. 2-70, web site www.epa.gov/opptintr/tri/pdr99/drhome.htm.

82. All estimates and projections presented in this chapter are taken directly from U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Air Pollutant Emission Trend Update, 1900-1997, EPA-454-E-98-007 (Research Triangle Park, NC, December 1998), web site www.epa.gov/ttn/ chief/trends97/emtrnd.html.

83. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, National Air Quality and Emissions Trends Report, 1997, EPA-454-R-98-016 (Research Triangle Park, NC, December 1998), p. 110, Table A-1, web site www.epa.gov/oar/aqtrnd97.

84. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, National Air Pollutant Emission Trends Update, 1900-1997, EPA-454-E-98-007 (Research Triangle Park, NC, December 1998), web site www.epa.gov/ttn/chief/trends97/emtrnd.html.

85. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900-1996, EPA-454-R-97-011 (Research Triangle Park, NC, December 1997), web site www.epa.gov/oar/emtrnd.

86. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Revised Guidelines for National Emissions Inventories (1996), available at web site www.iea.org/ipcc/envs1.htm.

87. Environmental Protection Agency, Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks 1990-1997, EPA-236-R-99-003 (Washington, DC, April 1999), p. 6-2, web site www.epa.gov/globalwarming/1999-inv/landuse.pdf.

88. United Nations, Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, FCCC/CP/1997/L.7/Add.1 (1997), Article 3, Paragraph 3, web site www.unfccc.de/index.html.

89. United Nations, Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, FCCC/CP/1997/L.7/Add.1 (1997), Article 3, Paragraph 4, web site www.unfccc.de/index.html.

90. The Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technical Advice (SBSTA) made this decision at its eighth meeting, in Bonn Germany. See United Nations, Report of the Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice on its Eighth Session, Bonn, June 2-12, 1998, FCCC/SBSTA/1998/6, Section 45(e), page 17, web site www.unfccc.de.

91. United Nations, Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, FCCC/CP/1997/L.7/Add.1 (1997), Article 5, Paragraph 1, web site www.unfccc.de/index.html.

92. D.S. Powell, J.L. Faulkner, D.R. Darr, Z. Zhu, and D.W. MacCleery, Forest Resources of the United States, 1992, USDA Forest Service General Technical Report RM-234 (Washington, DC, September 1993), p. 122.

93. Although some of EIA's detailed sectoral surveys are conducted only every 3 years on a sample basis, EIA collects information about apparent consumption of petroleum products (taken as "petroleum product supplied") in mandatory monthly surveys of primary suppliers (e.g., refiners, pipeline operators, importers/exporters, and bulk terminal operators).

94. Combustion of hydrocarbons results in the production of carbon dioxide, water vapor, and heat. In the United States, the heat resulting from combustion is generally measured as the heat associated with production of water vapor and carbon dioxide. This is commonly referred to as the "higher" or "gross" heating value and is used in EIA statistics on thermal energy. The estimates in this report consistently employ coefficients that reflect the higher heating value assumption. Internationally, however, the "lower" heating value is used. If the lower heating value were used, the Btu content of the fuel would be 5 to 10 percent lower, and the coefficients would be 5 to 10 percent larger, but the carbon emissions estimate would be unchanged. This is sometimes a source of discrepancy. See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Greenhouse Gas Inventory Reference Manual: Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories, Vol. 3 (Paris, France, 1997). Web site www.iea.org/ipcc/invs6.htm.

95. Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy Review 1998, DOE/EIA-0384(98) (Washington, DC, July 1999), p. 33.

96. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Greenhouse Gas Inventory Reference Manual: Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories, Vol. 3 (Paris, France, 1997), p. 1.28, web site www.iea.org/ipcc/invs6.htm.

97. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Greenhouse Gas Inventory Reference Manual: Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories, Vol. 3 (Paris, France, 1997), p. 1.29, web site www.iea.org/ipcc/invs6.htm.

98. See discussion of carbon dioxide manufacture for the treatment of vented carbon dioxide.

99. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Greenhouse Gas Inventory Reference Manual: Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories, Vol. 3 (Paris, France, 1997), p. 2.6, web site www.iea.org/ipcc/invs6.htm.

100. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990-1993 (Washington, DC, 1994), p. 32.

101. The Freedonia Group, Inc., Carbon Dioxide, Business Research Report B286 (Cleveland, OH, November 1991), p. 46.

102. The Freedonia Group, Inc., Carbon Dioxide, Industry Study 564 (Cleveland, OH, February 1994), p. 37.

103. D. Abrahamson, "Aluminum and Global Warming," Nature, Vol. 356 (April 1992), p. 484.

104. Energy Information Administration, Manufacturing Consumption of Energy 1994, DOE/EIA-0512(94) (Washington, DC, December 1997), Table A3, p. 49.

105. Drexel University Project Team, Energy Analysis of 108 Industrial Processes (Lilburn, GA: The Fairmont Press, 1996), p. 282.

106. National Risk Management Research Laboratory, Methane Emissions From the Natural Gas Industry, Vol. 2, Technical Report, GRI-94/0257.1 and EPA-600-R-96-08 (Research Triangle Park, NC, June 1996), p. 19.

107. National Risk Management Research Laboratory, Methane Emissions From the Natural Gas Industry, Vol. 2, Technical Report, GRI-94/0257.1 and EPA-600-R-96-08 (Research Triangle Park, NC, June 1996), p. 19.

108. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air and Radiation, Anthropogenic Methane Emissions in the United States: Estimates for 1990, Report to Congress (Washington, DC, April 1993), p. 2-22.

109. Radian Corporation, Global Emissions of Methane From Petroleum Sources, Prepared for the American Petroleum Institute (Research Triangle Park, NC, February 1992), Table A-1, p. A-1.

110. Gassy mines are defined as those underground coal mines with measured emissions from ventilation exhaust in excess of 100,000 cubic feet of methane per day.

111. For purposes of this analysis, the Northern Appalachia basin includes Pennsylvania, Northern West Virginia, Maryland, and Ohio; the Central Appalachia basin includes Eastern Kentucky, Virginia, Southern West Virginia, and Tennessee; the Warrior basin includes Alabama; the Illinois basin includes Illinois, Indiana, Western Kentucky, Iowa, and Oklahoma; and the Western basin includes Colorado, New Mexico, Utah, and Wyoming.

112. M.A. Trevits, G.L. Finfinger, and J.C. LaScola, "Evaluation of U.S. Coal Mine Emissions," in Society for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration, Proceedings of the Fifth U.S. Mine Ventilation Symposium (Littlejohn Co., 1991), p. 2.

113. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air and Radiation, Identifying Opportunities for Methane Recovery at U.S. Coal Mines, EPA-430-R-97-020 (Washington, DC, September 1997), p. 5-19.

114. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Greenhouse Gas Inventory Reference Manual: Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories, Vol. 3 (Paris, France, 1997), pp. 1.98-1.112, web site www.iea.org/ipcc/invs6.htm.

115. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Greenhouse Gas Inventory Reference Manual: Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories, Vol. 3 (Paris, France, 1997), pp. 1.98-1.112, web site www.iea.org/ipcc/invs6.htm.

116. S.A. Thorneloe, M.R.J. Doorn, L.A. Stefanski, M.A. Barlaz, R.L. Peer, and D.L. Epperson, "Estimate of Methane Emissions From U.S. Landfills," Prepared for U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development (April 1994), p. 1087.

117. D. Augenstein, "The Greenhouse Effect and U.S. Landfill Methane," Global Environment Change (December 1992), pp. 311-328.

118. See web site www.epa.gov/lmop.

119. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Policy, Planning and Evaluation, International Anthropogenic Methane Emissions: Estimates for 1990, EPA-230-R-93-010 (Washington, DC, January 1994), p. 10-9.

120. U.S. Census, 1980, 1990.

121. William Hahn, Science Applications International Corporation, personal communication, May 23, 1996.

122. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Greenhouse Gas Inventory Reference Manual: Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories, Vol. 3 (Paris, France, 1997), p. 6.23, web site www.iea.org/ipcc/invs6.htm.

123. Biological oxygen demand (BOD) represents the oxygen consumed by bacteria to decompose organic matter contained in a wastewater stream. It provides a measure of the organic loading of wastewater, which is the primary determinant of its potential to produce methane. BOD₅ is a standardized measurement of BOD that measures the oxygen consumed over a 5-day period.

124. P.J. Crutzen, I. Aselmann, and W.S. Seiler, "Methane Production by Domestic Animals, Wild Ruminants, Other Herbivorous Fauna, and Humans," Tellus, Vol. 38B (1986), p. 272.

125. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air and Radiation, Anthropogenic Methane Emissions in the United States: Estimates for 1990 (Washington, DC, April 1993), p. 5-3; and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks 1990-1997, EPA-236-R-99-003 (Washington, DC, April 1999), p. G-2, web site www.epa.gov/globalwarming/inventory/1999-inv.html.

126. P.J. Crutzen, I. Aselmann, and W.S. Seiler, "Methane Production by Domestic Animals, Wild Ruminants, Other Herbivorous Fauna, and Humans," Tellus, Vol. 38B (1986), pp. 274-275.

127. U.S. Department of Agriculture, National Agricultural Statistics Service, Census of Agriculture, United States Summary and State Data, Vol. 1, "Geographic Area Series," Part 51 (Washington, DC, 1987, 1992, and 1997).

128. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air and Radiation, Anthropogenic Methane Emissions in he United States: Estimates for 1990 (Washington, DC, April 1993).

129. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air and Radiation, Anthropogenic Methane Emissions in he United States: Estimates for 1990 (Washington, DC, April 1993).

130. L.M. Safley, M.E. Casada, J. Woodbury, and K. Roos, Global Methane Emissions from Livestock and Poultry Manure (Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, February 1992), p. 18.

131. Personal communication (May 1993).

132. R. Sass, F. Fisher, S.Lewis, M. Jund, and F. Turner, "Methane Emissions From Rice Fields: Effect of Soil Properties," Global Biogeochemical Cycles, Vol. 8 (1994), p. 135.

133. R.J. Cicerone, J.D. Shetter, and C.C. Delwiche, "Seasonal Variation of Methane Flux From a California Rice Paddy," Journal of Geophysical Research, Vol. 88 (1983), pp. 7203-7209.

134. C.W. Lindau and P.K. Bolich, "Methane Emissions From Louisiana First and Ratoon Rice Crop," Soil Science, Vol. 156 (1993), pp. 42-48.

135. A. Strehler and W. Stutzle, "Biomass Residues," in D.O Hall and R.P. Overend (eds.), Biomass: Regenerable Energy (Chichester, UK: John Wiley and Sons, 1987), p. 85.

136. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Policy, Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks 1990-1997, EPA-236-R-99-003 (Washington, DC, April 1999), p. 5-20.

137. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Greenhouse Gas Inventory Reference Manual: Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories, Vol. 3 (Paris, France, 1997), p. 2.23, web site www.iea.org/ipcc/invs6.htm.

138. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Greenhouse Gas Inventory Reference Manual: Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories, Vol. 3 (Paris, France, 1997), p. 1.53, web site www.iea.org/ipcc/invs6.htm.

139. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Greenhouse Gas Inventory Reference Manual: Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories, Vol. 3 (Paris, France, 1997), pp. 4.85-4.94, web site www.iea.org/ipcc/invs6.htm.

140. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Policy, Planning and Evaluation, U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks 1990-1997, EPA-236-R-99-003 (Washington, DC, April 1999), p. 93.

141. Personal communication, May 1993.

142. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Policy, Planning and Evaluation, U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks 1990-1997, EPA-236-R-99-003 (Washington, DC, April 1999), p. 111.

143. M.H. Thiemens and W.C. Trogler, "Nylon Production: An Unknown Source of Atmospheric Nitrous Oxide," Science, Vol. 251, No. 4996 (February 22, 1991), p. 932.

144. Radian Corporation, Nitrous Oxide Emissions From Adipic Acid Manufacturing (Rochester, NY, January 1992), p. 10.

145. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Greenhouse Gas Inventory Reference Manual: Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories, Vol. 3 (Paris, France, 1997), p. 2.18, web site www.iea.org/ipcc/invs6.htm.

146. G. Marland and A. Pippin, "United States Emissions of Carbon Dioxide to the Earth's Atmosphere by Economic Activity," Energy Systems and Policy, Vol. 14 (1990), pp. 319-336.

147. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Estimation of Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks (Paris, France, 1991), p. 2-18.

148. An ultimate analysis provides an exact breakdown of the elements present in a compound or mixture.

149. For a more detailed discussion of fossil fuel chemistry and emissions coefficients, see Energy Information Administration, Emissions of Greenhouse Gases in the United States 1987-1992, DOE/EIA-0573 (Washington, DC, November 1994), Appendix A, pp. 73-92, web site www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/1605/87-92rpt/appa.html.

150. For a more detailed discussion of jet fuel coefficients, see Energy Information Administration, Emissions of Greenhouse Gases in the United States 1987-1992, DOE/EIA-0573 (Washington, DC, November 1994), Appendix A, pp. 73-92; and Energy Information Administration, Emissions of Greenhouse Gases in the United States 1997, DOE/EIA-0573(97) (Washington, DC, October 1998), Appendix B, pp. 105-110.

151. National Institute of Petroleum and Energy Research, Motor Gasoline, Summer, and Motor Gasoline, Winter (1984-1994).

152. National Institute of Petroleum and Energy Research, Motor Gasoline, Summer, and Motor Gasoline, Winter (1980-1998); and M. DeLuchi, Emissions of Greenhouse Gases From the Use of Transportation Fuels and Electricity, ANL/ESD/TM-22, Vol. 2, Appendixes A-S (Chicago, IL: Argonne National Laboratory, November 1993), p. c-6.

153. National Institute of Petroleum and Energy Research, Motor Gasoline, Summer (1995-1998), and Motor Gasoline, Winter (1994-1995 to 1998-1999).

154. Energy Information Administration, Petroleum Supply Annual, DOE/EIA-0340 (Washington, DC, various years).

155. Energy Information Administration, Petroleum Supply Annual, DOE/EIA-0340 (Washington, DC, various years), Table 2.

156. Every year, as this report is prepared for publication, a number of computational errors that have crept into the report are detected and fixed. Sometimes, the detected errors have been present for more than one year. The errors that have been detected are typically very small (about 0.01 to 0.1 percent of emissions) and subtle, and they tend to both raise and lower estimated emissions. EIA is not aware of any remaining computational errors, but it is assumed that any undetected errors generally are similar to, or smaller than, the errors that have been detected.

157. Energy Information Administration, Quarterly Coal Report, DOE/EIA-0121(99/1Q) (Washington, DC, August 1999), Table 37, p. 42.

158. Energy Information Administration, Quarterly Coal Report, DOE/EIA-0121(99/1Q) (Washington, DC, August 1999), Table 1, p. 1.

159. Energy Information Administration, Natural Gas Annual 1997, DOE/EIA-0131(97) (Washington, DC, October 1998), Table A1, p. 228.

160. Energy Information Administration, Petroleum Supply Annual 1998, DOE/EIA-0340(98)/1 (Washington, DC, June 1999), Table S2, pp. 6, 7.

161. Energy Information Administration, Petroleum Supply Annual 1998, DOE/EIA-0340(98)/1 (Washington, DC, June 1999), Table 2, p. 34.

162. Energy Information Administration, Manufacturing Consumption of Energy 1994, DOE/EIA-0512(94) (Washington, DC, December 1997), Table A3.

163. Energy Information Administration, Coal Industry Annual 1996, DOE/EIA-0584(96) (Washington, DC, November 1997), pp. 252, 255.

164. W.E. Liss et al., Variability of Natural Gas Composition in Select Major Metropolitan Areas of the United States (Chicago, IL: Gas Research Institute, March 1992), p. 14.

165. Energy Information Administration, State Energy Data Report 1995, DOE/EIA-0214(95) (Washington, DC, December 1997), p. 497.

166. Energy Information Administration, State Energy Data Report 1995, DOE/EIA-0214(95) (Washington, DC, December 1997), p. 496.

167. Energy Information Administration, Emissions of Greenhouse Gases in the United States 1987-1992, DOE/EIA-0573 (Washington, DC, November 1994), pp. 78-80.

168. Energy Information Administration, Coal Industry Annual 1996, DOE/EIA-0584(96) (Washington, DC, November 1997), pp. 247-248, 252, 255.

169. Energy Information Administration, Natural Gas Annual 1997, DOE/EIA-0131(97) (Washington, DC, October 1998), Table 3, p. 12.

170. Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy Review 1998, DOE/EIA-0384(98) (Washington, DC, July 1999), Table A4, p. 320.

171. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Climate Protection Division, Coalbed Methane Outreach Program, Draft Analysis of Abandoned Coal Mine Methane Emissions Estimation Methodology (Washington, DC, December 18, 1998).

172. S.D. Piccot, S.S. Masemore, E. Ringler, and D.A. Kirchgessner, "Developing Improved Methane Emission Estimates for Coal Mining Operations," Presented at the 1995 Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Mitigation Research Symposium (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, June 27-29, 1995).

173. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Anthropogenic Methane Emissions in the United States: Estimates for 1990 (Washington, DC, April 1993).

174. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air and Radiation, Identifying Opportunities for Methane Recovery at U.S. Coal Mines: Draft Profiles of Selected Gassy Underground Coal Mines, EPA-430-R-97-020 (Washington, DC, September 1997).

175. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Greenhouse Gas Inventory Reference Manual: Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories, Vol. 3 (Paris, France, 1997), p. 1.108, web site www.iea.org/ipcc/invs6.htm.

176. S.D. Piccot, S.S. Masemore, E. Ringler, and D.A. Kirchgessner, "Developing Improved Methane Emission Estimates for Coal Mining Operations," Presented at the 1995 Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Mitigation Research Symposium (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, June 27-29, 1995).

177. M.R. Harrison and R.M. Cowgill, Methane Emissions From the Natural Gas Industry, Prepared for the Gas Research Institute and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (June 1996).

178. S.A. Thorneloe, M.R.J. Doorn, L.A. Stefanski, M.A. Barlaz, R.L. Peer, and D.L. Epperson, "Estimate of Methane Emissions from U.S. Landfills," Prepared for U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development (April 1994).

179. Franklin Associates, Ltd., Characterization of Municipal Solid Waste in the United States: 1994 Update (prepared for U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response); and "The State of Garbage in America," Biocycle (various years).

180. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Greenhouse Gas Inventory Reference Manual: Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories, Vol. 3 (Paris, France, 1997), pp. 6.15-6.23, web site www.iea.org/ipcc/invs6.htm.

181. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, International Anthropogenic Methane Emissions: Estimates for 1990, EPA 230-R-93-010 (Washington, DC, January 1994), p. 10-15.

182. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks 1990-1997, (Washington, DC, April 1999), web site www.epa.gov/globalwarming/inventory.

183. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks 1990-1997, (Washington, DC, April, 1999), web site www.epa.gov/globalwarming/inventory.

184. R.J. Cicerone, J.D. Shetter, and C.C. Delwiche, "Seasonal Variation of Methane Flux from a California Rice Paddy," Journal of Geophysical Research, Vol. 88 (1983), pp. 7203-7209; C.W. Landau and P.K. Bolich, "Methane Emissions from Louisiana First and Ratoon Crop," Soil Science, Vol. 156 (1993), pp. 42-48; R.L. Sass, F.M. Fisher, S. Lewis, M. Jund, and F. Turner, "Methane Emissions from Rice Fields: Effect of Soil Properties," Global Biogeochemical Cycles, Vol. 8 (1994), p. 135; R.L. Sass, F.M. Fisher, and Y.B. Wang, "Methane Emissions from Rice Fields: The Effect of Floodwater Management," Global Biogeochemical Cycles, Vol. 6 (1992), pp. 249-262.

185. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Greenhouse Gas Inventory Reference Manual: Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories, Vol. 3 (Paris, France, 1997), pp. 4.67-4.86, web site www.iea.org/ipcc/invs6.htm.

186. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks 1990-1997, (Washington, DC, April, 1999), web site www.epa.gov/globalwarming/inventory.

187. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Greenhouse Gas Inventory Reference Manual: Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories, Vol. 3 (Paris, France, 1997), p. 2.22, web site www.iea.org/ipcc/invs6.htm.

188. A. Jaques, F. Neitzert, and P. Boileau, Trends in Canada's Greenhouse Gas Emissions (1990-1995) (Ottawa: Environment Canada, October 1997, pp. 23-24. The cited research was: V. Ballantyne, P. Howes, and L. Stephanson, Nitrous Oxide Emissions From Light Duty Vehicles, SAE Technical Paper 940304 (March 1994).

189. Now the EPA Office of Policy and Reinvention.

190. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Emissions of Nitrous Oxide From Highway Mobile Sources, EPA-420-R-98-009 (Washington, DC, August 1998), web site www.epa.gov/oms/climate.htm. The author of this report is Harvey Michaels.

191. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Greenhouse Gas Inventory Reference Manual: Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories, Vol. 3 (Paris, France, 1997), p. 1.36, web site www.iea.org/ipcc/invs6.htm.

192. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Greenhouse Gas Inventory Reference Manual, IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventory, Vol. 3 (Paris, France, 1994), pp. 4.94-4.110.

193. Energy Information Administration, Electric Power Annual 1997, Vol. 2, DOE/EIA-0348(97/2) (Washington, DC, October, 1998), Table A3, p. 120.

194. The U.S. Department of Commerce reports total sales of industrial carbon dioxide at approximately 17 million metric tons annually, while Freedonia Group, Inc., reports that approximately 5 million metric tons are used for purposes other than enhanced oil recovery.

195. Defense Energy Support Center, Fact Book 1998, web site www.dfsc.dla.mil/main/publicati.htm (April 1999).

196. Gasoline is presumably acquired for motor vehicles and, typically, is accounted for in both domestic and foreign energy statistics.

197. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Coalbed Methane Outreach Program, Draft Analysis of Abandoned Coal Mine Methane Emissions Estimation Methodology (December 18, 1998)

198. S.D. Piccot, S.S. Masemore, E. Ringler, and D.A. Kirchgessner, "Developing Improved Methane Emission Estimates for Coal mining Operations," Presented at the 1995 Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Mitigation Research Symposium (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, June 27-29, 1995).

199. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1997, Introductory Analysis of Opportunities to Reduce Methane Emissions from Abandoned Coal Mines, unpublished internal report.

200. T. Dahl, U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Wetlands Losses in the United States: 1780's to 1980's (Washington, DC, 1990).

201. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service, 1991 Update of National Resources Inventory Wetlands Data for Non-Federal Rural Lands (Washington, DC, not dated), p. 4.

202. See E. Matthews and I. Fung, "Methane Emissions From Natural Wetlands: Global Distribution, Area, and Environmental Characteristics," Global Biogeochemical Cycles, Vol. 1, No. 1 (March 1987); and K. Bartlett and R.C. Harriss, "Review and Assessment of Methane Emissions from Wetlands," Chemosphere, Vol. 26, Nos. 1-4 (1993), p. 280.

203. See A. Mosier, "Nitrous Oxide Emissions From Agricultural Soils," paper presented at RIVM International Workshop on Methane and Nitrous Oxide: Methods in National Emission Inventories and Options for Control (Amersfoort, The Netherlands, February 3-5, 1993).

204. A. Mosier and D. Schimel, "Influence of Agricultural Nitrogen on Atmospheric Methane and Nitrous Oxide," Chemistry & Industry, Vol. 2 (December 1991), p. 875.

205. Council of Economic Advisors, Economic Report of the President (Washington DC, February 1998), p. 167.

206. Energy Information Administration, State Energy Data Report 1996, DOE/EIA-0214(96) (Washington, DC, February 1999), pp. 21-26, web site www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/sep/states.html.

207. Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy Review 1997, DOE/EIA-0384(97) (Washington, DC, July 1998), pp. 37, web site www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/aer/contents.html.