Cities Feeding People  CFP REPORT SERIES   Report 19

TABLE OF CONTENTS 

INTRODUCTION

THE SCOPE OF THE STUDY  

METHODOLOGY 

URBAN AGRICULTURE IN CANADA  
 

Waste Management  
 
Case Study 1 Composting of Organic Solids  
 
Urban Farming/Gardening  
 
Case Study 2 Urban Farming in Relation to Urban Design  
 
Community Gardening 
 
Organic Farming / Gardening 
 
Case Study 3 Organic Farming 
 
Permaculture 
 
Greenhouses 
 
Case Study 3.1 Greenhouse and Roof Garden Technologies 
 
Rooftop Gardening 
 
Case Study 3.2 Rooftop Gardening in Quebec and Ontario  
 
Urban Pest Management 
 
Urban Food Security 
 
Case Study 4 Food Security 
 
Urban Forestry 
 
Case Study 5 Urban Forestry 
 
Agriculture in Peri-urban Areas 
 
Case Study 6 Agriculture in Peri-urban Areas 

INTERNATIONAL URBAN AGRICULTURE 
 

Case Study 7 International Urban Agriculture 

CONCLUSION 

END NOTES 

Appendix 1: List of Contacts 

Appendix 2: Bibliography

---

This Introduction is followed by a section clarifying the term "urban agriculture" and the scope of this study. Other sections outline the research methodology and examine Canadian scientific and technological capacity, expertise and experience in urban agriculture, both in the national and international contexts. 

The investigation focuses on Canadian scientific initiatives - including teaching, research, and outreach programs - on various urban agriculture related activities (eg. waste management, urban farming/gardening, organic farming, permaculture, greenhouses, rooftop gardens, pest management, urban forestry, peri-urban agriculture, and international urban agriculture). The selection of these activities is based more on "diversity" considerations, rather than on any specific typology. Urban animal husbandry is excluded since, with rare exceptions, it is not practised within Canadian cities.⁽²⁾ Several case studies are presented to illustrate study findings. Relevant contacts and references for each activity are provided in Appendix 1 and 2, respectively. 

THE SCOPE OF THE STUDY 
Urban agriculture is a relatively new field and, not surprisingly, does not yet have a precise academic definition. In a broad sense, it is defined as the production of food and non-food through cultivation of plant, tree crops, aquaculture, and animal husbandry, within urban and periurban areas.⁽³⁾ In many studies, however, the meaning is considerably narrower and refers to farming or food production activities within a city's and peri-urban boundaries. This study takes both perspectives into account -- the broader definition is adopted, but emphasis is placed upon food-producing enterprises. 

The infancy of "formal" urban agriculture research is also reflected by the fact that scholarly work on urban agriculture-based activities is scattered across various "traditional" disciplines. On the one hand, this reflects the field's ample horizons and interdisciplinary nature. On the other hand, the lack of general recognition of the subject matter means that many relevant studies do not always use the same "terms and language," rendering follow-up studies by other researchers very difficult. 

The research in this paper traces and attempts to pull together the various urban agriculture- related scientific expertise which exists among numerous scattered subject areas. It may underrepresent the actual amount of Canadian scientific competence since some scholars may conduct relevant work without necessarily describing the topic as urban agriculture. The report is not intended to be exhaustive, and should be viewed as a preliminary study which will hopefully trigger further detailed research. 

Waste Management 
The aspect of waste management which is most relevant to urban agriculture is organic waste composting. Organic waste comes from both solid waste and organic sludge. The latter is usually a by-product of wastewater treatment. Municipalities, which rely on landfills for final urban solid waste and sludge disposal, are finding current landfills nearing peak capacity and new siting processes extremely difficult. As a result, cities are increasingly turning to composting (i.e. on-site and centralized) as an environmentally and economically sound waste reduction option at source. 

In general, research on composting in relation to its use for urban agriculture can be grouped into several themes. They include composting technology, management and use; soil properties with regards to compost use; and agronomic response to composts. 

Scientific work on compost technology is primarily concerned with developing environmentally sound, hygienically safe, and economically viable composting processes and facilities. Techniques to optimize compost stability and maturity, to control odour, and to improve compost quality for soil amendment are but some examples of detailed research inquiries. Management and legal issues, particularly with regards to urban waste reduction, siting composting facilities, and compost standardization are also drawing research attention. 

Another research topic is on soil properties and agronomic quality in response to compost use. Organic matter in compost can affect the biological, chemical, and physical properties of soil. It also can affect yields and other agronomic characteristics of crops or other plants and agroecosystem components. 

There are several engineering faculties which offer waste management programs. Among them, the Department of Engineering, University of Guelph, offers Bachelor, MSc, and PhD programs in environmental engineering, with one stream specifically focusing on composting of organic solids (Case Study 1). One faculty member, Dr. Lambert Otten, specializes in both the technological and legal aspects of composting and compost use. Under his supervision, several students have conducted research on the technological and managerial development of composting systems. Canadian literature on composting, however, is not yet extensive,⁽⁴⁾ and research attempts to directly link compost use and urban agriculture are scarce.⁽⁵⁾ 

Other research pertinent to composting includes soil properties and agronomic response to compost use. Such research is also not very extensive in Canada.⁽⁶⁾ However, some scientists do work on such subjects with community groups. The Residential Compost Program of Greater Vancouver Regional District, for example, involves faculty from the Department of Soil Science, University of British Columbia to organize its soil management program.⁽⁷⁾ The department's program focuses on improving the efficiency of organic and inorganic nutrient sources in various soil management schemes. 

Case Study 1    Composting of Organic Solids ⁽⁸⁾ 

Institution: School of Engineering, University of Guelph 

Degrees Offered: B.Sc., Msc, Ph.D. 

Program: Environmental Engineering 

Summary: Environmental Engineering research involves methods to prevent or mitigate damage to the environment by reduction, treatment, and reclamation of soil, liquid, and gaseous by-products of industrial, agricultural and municipal activities. Emphasis is on the behaviour and fate of contaminants in the environment. Research topics include: composting of organic solids, wastewater treatments, soil/site remediation technology, supercritical fluid extraction, odour control, control of spills, policy innovations, air pollution meteorology, air-surface exchange measurement and modelling. 

Supporting Facilities: 

Teaching laboratories, bench research laboratory, research and development laboratories (environmental labs, electrical lab, biological labs, food research labs, Arkell and Elora research stations). 

Contact person: Dr. Lambert Otten 

Director and Professor of School of Engineering 

School of Engineering, University of Guelph 

Guelph, Ontario, Canada N1G 2W1 

Phone: (519)824-4120 Ext.2434; Fax: (519)836-0227 

Urban Farming/Gardening 
As indicated earlier, urban agriculture is most commonly associated with urban gardening and farming. In Canada, as in other countries, growing plants and trees in cities has occurred since urban civilizations were first created. However, its importance as a "serious" food production activity has risen and fallen according to time, history and changing societal values. Historically, wars and economic recessions caused urban food growing and animal husbandry to flourish.⁽⁹⁾ Once the industrial revolution arrived, however, nations began to prosper, the rural-urban divide increased, and growing plants in cities was considered primarily for their recreational, leisure, and aesthetical values. Today, livestock rearing in urban boundaries is often prohibited because of health concerns.⁽¹⁰⁾ 

This trend is typical of the modern urban culture, which considers urban food growing as marginal and ephemeral. Other factors such as zoning and planning restrictions, soil contamination and airborne pollutants, relatively low food prices (sometimes cheaper to buy rather than to grow), and high land values reinforce this tendency.⁽¹¹⁾ Additionally, federal and provincial agriculture authorities often lack interest in urban food growers, whom they do not see as part of their constituency.⁽¹²⁾ 

Over the last few years, the situation has begun to gradually change as public groups grow more aware of environmental issues. Urban landscape design which emphasizes leisure and aesthetical values, and thus suppresses its productive role, is now regarded as unsustainable.⁽¹³⁾ The concept of productive and sustainable cities, as opposed to consumptive and unsustainable ones, is being promoted by a growing number of people, including academics. Various grassroots movements have also emerged to promote urban gardening and food production in an environmentally sustainable manner. 

In Canada, urban farming is not yet popular as an academic field unto itself. However, although still very limited, it is beginning to be considered by some scholars from urban-oriented academic fields (eg. landscape architecture, urban planning, urban ecology) as an alternative means toward sustainable cities. Attention is often focused on the environmental philosophy of urban farming practices, rather than its agronomic and financial aspects. Some faculties which incorporate urban farming and environmentally-sustainable urban design in their teaching programs include the Faculty of Environmental Studies, York University (Dr. Michael Hough, see Case Study 2), and the Department of Urban and Rural Planning, Faculty of Architecture, Technical University of Nova Scotia (Dr. Susan Guppy). A few other scholars are also beginning to pay attention to this under-researched subject.⁽¹⁴⁾ 

The aforementioned description is not intended to overlook Canadian urban gardening expertise, which is likely quite developed. This expertise, however, is perhaps more technical, rather than analytical in the academic sense. Several universities and technical colleges, for example, have extension programs for people who are interested in becoming practising gardeners. Some examples are the Master Gardener Program from the University of Saskatchewan, as well as various horticultural courses (ie. home gardening, garden design, turf management, urban tree management, etc.) offered by the Distance Education program of Okanagan University College and the University of Guelph.⁽¹⁵⁾ 

Case Study 2    Urban Farming in Relation to Urban Design ⁽¹⁶⁾ 

Institution: Faculty of Environmental Studies, York University 

Degrees Offered: BSc, MES, PhD 

Course: City Form and Natural Process 

Objective: To develop creative ways of thinking about human environments that are in tune with ecological thought and feeling; to encourage critical observation, evaluation and understanding of the living environment; to develop the basis for further thinking and research. 

Summary: The course's major topics include urban ecology (basis for design), urban climate, water, plants, wildlife, city farming, and the connection among them. The course examines the argument that an environmental view of the city is now an essential component of urban design, one that is in tune with contemporary issues of energy and resource conservation and environmental awareness. Advancing urbanization often replaces a once diverse natural landscape for a biologically sterile one, and efforts to reclaim mined or derelict urban land substitute naturally-regenerating sites for new horticultural deserts that perpetuate the very conditions they intend to cure. These two landscapes symbolize a fundamental conflict in the perception of nature -- the desire to nurture the one and suppress the other, in a perpetual struggle to maintain order and control. In arguing that the unrecognized natural processes occurring in cities can provide us with alternative basis for urban design, the course offers a radical look at this problem urging for a re-examination of all unbuilt assumptions about open space. 

Contact: Dr. Michael Hough (Landscape architect and Professor) 

Faculty of Environmental Studies, York University, North York, Ontario, Canada M3J 1L3; Phone: (416)736-5252; Fax: (416)736-5269 
 

Community Gardening 
Community gardening is one form of socially-organized urban agriculture. Broadly defined, a community garden is "where people share basic resources -- land, water, and (especially in the city or densely built areas) sunlight."⁽¹⁷⁾ This definition includes allotment gardens (where plots of land for cultivation are allotted to individuals for a fee), as well as communal open spaces like school gardens or youth demonstration gardens. 

Community gardening in Canada began to flourish again in the 1970s due to the growing number of abandoned lots, the fact that parks were too distant from the neighbourhoods they served,⁽¹⁸⁾ and the increasing city density which caused land to be less affordable. Other trends, such as growing environmental awareness (ie. the desire to work with nature and/or to consume more natural, pesticide-free food), more leisure time, rising food prices, and community self-determination, also facilitated this movement. Some regions which were active in early community gardening projects are the Ottawa National Capital Commission (ie. Greenbelt area) and the island of Montreal. Montreal, with 6278 garden plots in 1994, is considered to have the largest and best managed community gardens in Canada.⁽¹⁹⁾ 

Although the number of community gardens would appear to be increasing all over the country, research and other academic initiatives are still poorly developed. Researchers almost uniformly cite the lack of readily available scientific information by way of explanation. Most research, accordingly, relies on direct surveys, popular writing (ie. newspapers, popular magazines) and anecdotal information. 

Scientific research related to community gardening usually focuses on its social, philosophical and environmental dimensions. One of the major recurrent themes is how community gardens contribute to better and healthier urban landscapes, including the social and psychological well-being of urban individuals and society. Gardeners' socio-economic characteristics, as well as obstacles to community garden sustainability (eg. temporal land tenure, vandalism, unsupporting policies) are also typical research topics. The various functions of community gardens and the unique properties they possess have contributed to the wide range of subjects in which academic research is scattered. Examples include urban agriculture, landscape architecture, community development, community health, urban planning, and environmental ethics. 

Dr. Moura Quayle, University of British Columbia Landscape Architecture Program, was one of the first to conduct a comprehensive survey of community gardens. Quayle's ongoing work on community gardens is typical, in the sense that community gardens are not seen as an end in themselves. Rather, they are a means to promote diverse activities (both in the physical and social senses) and sustainability in the urban setting.⁽²⁰⁾ A growing number of students in landscape architecture programs at UBC and other universities have become interested in working on community gardening issues. 

Organic Farming / Gardening 
Conceptually, there is no single universally accepted definition of the word "organic," since it can mean different things to different people.⁽²¹⁾ Terminologies such as "ecological," "biological," "bio-dynamic," "sustainable," and "natural" are often used interchangeably with "organic,"⁽²²⁾ although they may not necessarily mean the same thing. In its narrowest sense, organic farming usually refers to agricultural operations which avoid or totally exclude synthetic chemical inputs (ie. fertilizers, pesticides, antibiotics, additives, growth hormones). Critics, however, allege this "technique-based" definition loses the ethical dimensions (eg. attitudes toward nature and future generations), which is the primary message of the organic movement. 

Hill and MacRae state that these various concepts of organic farming can be understood as a range of approaches within the whole sustainable agriculture spectrum.⁽²³⁾ In its most developed form, organic farming is a manifestation of both ecologically viable and socially responsible agricultural philosophy and farming practices.⁽²⁴⁾ Similarly, Lampkin defined organic farming as "an approach to agriculture where the aim is to create integrated, humane, environmentally sustainable agricultural production systems, which maximize reliance on farm-derived renewable resource and management of ecological and biological processes and interactions, so as to provide acceptable levels of crop, livestock and human nutrition, protection from pests and diseases, and an appropriate return to the human and other resources employed."⁽²⁵⁾ 

The modern organic movement, which initiated in Germany, can be traced back to the 1920s.⁽²⁶⁾ However, it was not until the past quarter century that the movement gained its momentum. In Canada, the movement began in the 1950s, influenced by the spread of literature and expert visits from Europe and the USA.⁽²⁷⁾ In the 1970s, organic farming gained a stronger foothold, marked by the creation of several provincial organic farming organizations. Its further development has also been greatly facilitated by the public's continually increasing environmental awareness. 

The 1980s saw the development of research and teaching on sustainable agriculture, with several universities and colleges introducing relevant courses. One example is the Issues in Alternative Agriculture course offered at MacDonald College, McGill University.⁽²⁸⁾ Research on various socio-economic and agronomic aspects of organic farming have also been conducted. Most studies, however, suffer from methodological deficiencies and very few embrace the agroecological paradigm.⁽²⁹⁾ 

Beginning in the 1970s, urban residents and grassroots associations began to encourage the organic gardening movement.⁽³⁰⁾ At the academic level, initiatives to promote organic gardening were also present. Dr. John Evans from Memorial University's Biology Department started to teach the subject in 1974.⁽³¹⁾ At McGill University, the Ecological Agriculture Project, established in 1974, has become an excellent resource (both individual expertise and literature) on ecological agriculture. One of the project's missions is to promote the development of sustainable urban agricultural practices (Case Study 3).⁽³²⁾  
 

Institution: Ecological Agriculture Projects (EAP), MacDonald Campus, McGill University 

Mission: To facilitate the establishment of food systems worldwide that are nutritionally sound, socially just, humane, economically viable and environmentally sustainable. 

Summary: To accomplish the project mission, the EAP collects, organizes, and disseminates essential information, conducts research, and provides expert analysis and advice to farmers, consumers, government, academia, agribusinesses and the media. The project also facilitates the development of urban agriculture by establishing demonstration gardens, writing and distributing numerous publications, acting as a consultant to various related projects, giving lectures, workshops, and building up a reference collection of materials. Recent achievements in education and extension include providing 3,000 information requests from around the world, 80 lectures, workshops and media interviews; offering university-level courses and a degree program in ecological agriculture; publishing more than 100 papers and bibliographies; establishing the Agro-Bio Information Service for government extension agents in Quebec and elsewhere. Recent achievements in policy and representation include conducting more than a dozen government policy studies; representing more than 20 local, national, and international committees and boards. Recent achievements in research and consulting include preparing consultant reports on soil amendments, safe pest control products, composting devices, and farm/landscape design and management; establishing a participatory on-farm research program, and on-campus "certified organic" research plots. 

Contact: Dr. John Henning (Acting Director, EAP, and Professor, MacDonald College, McGill University); Dr. Stuart B. Hill (Associate Director, EAP, and Professor, MacDonald College, McGill University); Ecological Agriculture Projects; Centennial Centre CCB13, McGill University (MacDonald Campus), 21, 111 Lakeshore Road, Ste-Anne de Bellevue, Quebec, Canada H9X 3V9. Phone (514) 398-7771; fax (514) 398-7621. 

Email: eap@agradm.lan.mcgill.ca 

Web site http://www.agrenv.mcgill.ca/Extension/EAP After January 1,1997 www.eap.mcgill.ca  
 

Permaculture 
Permaculture or permanent agriculture, is another variant within the spectrum of alternative sustainable agricultural practices. It is intended to be "a designed agriculture, so that the species, composition, array and organization of plants and animals are the central factor . . . The philosophy is to work with, rather than against, nature; of protracted and thoughtful observation rather than protracted and thoughtless labour; and of looking at plants and animals in all their functions, rather than treating an area as a single-product system."⁽³⁴⁾ The central tenet of permaculture is sustainable agricultural practices which rely on the knowledge and respect of natural ecological processes. Permaculture in an urban context is designed to reverse the global tendency of consumptive cities toward more productive, self reliant, and self-sustaining urban ecosystems. In practical terms, it attempts to educate people so they are better able to produce their own food and livelihoods in an environmentally benign manner. 

Since the 1970s, philosophical and methodological concepts of permaculture have spread worldwide, especially through the work of Australian ecologist Bill Mollison (reference provided in Appendix 2). In Canada, attempts to publicly disseminate the concept are also underway. One example is the initiative of the Institute for Bioregional Studies, Charlottetown, PEI (see Appendix 1), which offers permaculture courses and workshops to the general public. Instructors are drawn from both professional and academic practitioners, with a focus on urban permaculture and the concept of ecocities. 

Greenhouses 
Greenhouses are commonly found in urban Northern landscapes, where the climate does not allow year-round outdoor gardening and farming. There are many technical experts and guide books for greenhouse design, construction, and management. These guide books usually address various types of greenhouses which serve different purposes. Size, structure, technology, and management vary according to, for example, household/family size and commercial purpose. Greenhouses can also differ according to the type of crops grown, energy used (ie. solar, artificial lighting), and ecosystem management (i.e. biological, artificial chemical control). 

Greenhouses are usually an integral part of agronomic facilities at universities and technical colleges (Case Study 3.1). In the urban context, it was Agriculture Canada which specifically published a detailed manual for energy-conserving urban greenhouse design, construction and  management.⁽³⁵⁾ Greenhouse construction in cities requires specific expertise so that its design meets unique urban social and ecological requirements. The research branch of Agriculture Canada recognized this important fact. Specific considerations which were examined include building codes and permits, property easements, aesthetic values, fire regulations, costs, solar access, airborne pollutants, snow, hazards, and different management practices. 
 

Case Study 3.1    Greenhouse and Roof Garden Technologies 

Institution: Centre de Recherche en Horticulture (CRH), Faculté des sciences de l'agriculture et de l'alimentation, Laval University. 

Mission: To train researchers and specialists in diverse disciplines of horticultural science at the doctoral and masters levels; to increase knowledge in the horticultural sciences and the various contributing disciplines; to meet the requirements of the horticultural industry in Quebec and Canada by finding ecologically sound, high-performance alternatives to current technology, thereby increasing competitiveness and the quality of products for consumers. 

Summary: This Centre was created from two groups, the Specialization Center for Greenhouse Production and the Fruit and Vegetable Conservation Research Group, and continues a research program on greenhouse productivity. The main priority of the CRH researchers is to develop and transfer knowledge on new technologies, and to improve the quality and safety of horticultural products. Applied research projects include: greenhouse vegetable and ornamental plant production, field production of market fruit and vegetables, and nursery and turf production. The Centre's Envirotron has eight specialized laboratories and controlled-environment chambers to study the physiology and protection of plants. More than 100 individuals are doing work through the Centre, which led last year to the publication of 90 articles in peer-reviewed scientific journals. Research is funded by the National Science and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) and through many private sector grants. 

Contact: Mr. Serge Yelle, Director CRH, Université Laval, Québec G1K 7P4; E-mail: crh@crh.ulaval.ca; André Gosselin, CRH, Pavillon de l'Envirotron, Université Laval, Québec G1K 7P4; E-mail: fsaa@fsaa.ulaval.ca 

Rooftop Gardening 
Advocates of the greening of cities often lament the thousands of hectares of barren rooftops, which could otherwise be used as productive gardens. Indeed, in some parts of Europe, roof green space is a legal requirement.⁽³⁶⁾ In Canada, roof gardens are also starting to gain in popularity, with some specialists actively promoting them to the general public (Case Study 3.2).⁽³⁷⁾ 

Gardening on elevated structures is a logical consequence of the lack of affordable land in metropolitan areas. Roof garden proponents often claim that this farming method can be a part of the sustainable and healthy city solution. It does not consume land, can reduce air pollution and stormwater runoff, promote urban production and food self-sufficiency, reduce food transportation costs, and increase a building's economic value. It also promotes city beautification and is accessible for leisure activities. 

Many obstacles, however, exist. No matter which planting techniques (ie. container, hydroponics, greenhouses, coldframes) are used, transporting the required materials to the roof location is not as easy as for conventional ground gardens.⁽³⁸⁾ In addition, prospective gardeners must also consider the roof support capacity, which can limit the garden's design. Roof elevation, strong winds, high temperature, and suitable plant species also require serious consideration. For instance, strong wind, which can wipe out leaves and vines, or high temperatures which necessitate more frequent watering, may discourage some gardeners. 

Academic initiatives in rooftop gardening do not appear to be widespread, and those who support the idea do not necessarily research or practise it.⁽³⁹⁾ Some early attempts, however, were conducted in the mid 1970s by some faculty staff of the School of Architecture and Brace Research Institute, McGill University. The project was carried out in collaboration with the University Settlement Community Centre. The project published a detailed manual on rooftop gardening techniques, which became the basis for a Department of Agriculture pamphlet on this subject. This two-year, federally-funded demonstration project has long ceased, but a few faculty members are still available to provide public information on rooftop gardening.⁽⁴⁰⁾ 

Case Study 3.2    Rooftop Gardening in Quebec and Ontario 

Québec City 

Private Sector: One company working with the Centre de Recherche en Horticulture is SOPREMA. They have developed a lightweight rooftop system for growing plants called SOPRANATURE, which can adapt to extreme weather conditions. 

Contact: SOPREMA Headquarters: 800, rue Saint-Vallier Ouest, Québec, Qc. G1N 1C9; Phone: (418) 681-8127; 1-800-463-2382; FAX: (418) 681-1224. 

Toronto 

Community: The Rooftop Garden Resource Group 

Mission: To create a rooftop gardening culture in Metropolitan Toronto. 

Strategy: By linking community, professional and government interests, they actively promote rooftop gardens through education, community action, and the media. A number of pilot projects within the community are being created, including projects at city schools. The founding members of this group work for the Toronto Food Policy Council, Grow T.O.gether Community Gardeners, and the City of Toronto's Department of Housing, and they are urban planners, architects, and engineers. They are dedicated to making the Toronto urban environment a greener and healthier place to live and work through the creation of rooftop gardens which support urban food production, improve air quality and increase habitat for birds, promote community cultural diversity, and create job opportunities. 

Contact: Monica E. Kuhn, Architect, 14 Sackville Place, Toronto, Ontario M4X 1A4; Phone (416) 923-9034. 

Prepared by BrendaLee Wilson, IDRC, based on information provided at the American Community Gardening Association Conference, Montreal, September 26-29, 1996  
 

Urban Pest Management 
Urban pest management is an integral aspect of urban agriculture. Various types of indoor and outdoor pests, from fungi to microbes, insects, and weeds are commonly found in urban environments. Insect pests such as the beetle grub, webworm, and chinch bug can damage home and commercial lawns and ornamental plants. Aphids, flee beetles, horn worms, snails, and various weeds, are but some additional examples of the obstacles posed to home gardeners and urban horticulturalists. Similarly, trees in urban areas are also susceptible to pest attacks. 

Many different control measures can be used to eliminate urban pests. The most common is chemical spraying using such pesticides as insecticides, herbicides, and fungicides. Yet, in recent years, this reliance on pesticides has caused increased concern and controversy over potential detrimental consequences to human health and environmental safety. Pesticide overuse has also led to pesticide-resistant species which are even more difficult to manage. This has helped popularize alternative urban pest management systems such as biological control, organic pest management, and integrated pest management. 

Urban integrated pest management (IPM), as popularized by American scientists W.Olkowski and H.Olkowski, is a fairly new phenomenon.⁽⁴¹⁾ IPM relies on a combination of various economically and environmentally-appropriate techniques to suppress (but not entirely exterminate) pest populations, and to minimize damage to acceptable levels.⁽⁴²⁾ The IPM approach is based on the assumptions that: (1) most pests are an integral part of the ecology in a given area; (2) although pests usually cannot be eliminated, their population can be controlled; and (3) a certain level of pest injury is acceptable.⁽⁴³⁾ Methods range from physical treatments (eg. traps) to use of natural predators, resistant and adapted plants, habitat modification, etc. 

Insects are the most common pests to be found in urban settings,⁽⁴⁴⁾ which may partially explain the development of the field of urban entomology. Historically, urban entomology did not pay as much attention to horticultural issues, as it did to silviculture.⁽⁴⁵⁾ Therefore, the literature on horticulture entomology is relatively sparse.⁽⁴⁶⁾ In Canada, academic expertise on urban entomology can be found in several technical colleges and universities. Some institutions which offer urban entomology programs are the University of Toronto, through its Faculty of Forestry, and Sir Sandford Flemming College, Lindsay, Ontario, through its Environmental Pest Management Program. 
 
Research on urban pest management takes various forms. Some of the most recurrent topics are the identification and behaviour of urban pest species, as well as their effective control and management. Such studies have been conducted, for example, by researchers from the Agriculture Canada Research Centre. The persistence and behaviour of pesticides in urban ecosystems (eg. soil, folial tissues, surface and ground water) are also of great concern, as are the potential impacts on human health (for example, research conducted by researchers at the University of Guelph's Toxicology Department). 

Urban Food Security 
Food security is defined as "the assurance of access to adequate nutrition, either through direct effort or exchange at acceptable prices."⁽⁴⁷⁾ Urban agriculture holds particular significance due to its potential role in assuring urban food security. As indicated earlier, urban food growing in Canada, unlike most developing countries, is motivated more by recreational and environmental values, rather than by survival needs. This generalization, however, should not mask the fact that certain segments of urban society grow food solely for economic reasons, or to meet nutritional needs. 

Economic hardship, in particular, is the principal variable that connects urban agriculture with food security. In Newfoundland, for instance, an allotment garden program regained much of its popularity during the province's recent economic recession.⁽⁴⁸⁾ Another example is Toronto's Food Policy Council, an institution created due to concerns over Toronto's food security, which promotes small-scale food production enterprises for low-income families. 

There are a growing number of scholars interested in urban food security issues, as evidenced by those who are committee members on Toronto's Food Policy Council, and who have established a study group consisting of people with similar concerns (Case Study 4). Although newly established, membership is growing rapidly,⁽⁴⁹⁾ demonstrating again the increased degree of academic interest in this subject matter. 

Case Study 4    Food Security ⁽⁵⁰⁾ 

Institution: Centre for Studies in Food Security (CSFS), Ryerson Polytechnic University. 

Summary: The CSFS has organised a research network (Toronto Food Research Network) consisting of academics, researchers, and practitioners concerned with food security issues and involved in research in this area. The TFRN has presently about 100 members and some of them meet on a monthly basis. CSFS is also working on partnerships with the University of Toronto and York University to organize joint research projects and possible graduate courses and training programs in food security. The research project currently focuses on changing food practices among immigrants in Metropolitan Toronto and Sustainable Urban Food Systems. The project is also planning to organize an International Conference on Sustainable Urban Food Systems from May 22-25, 1997 in Toronto. The conference will deal with food security, food policy, urban agriculture, distribution and food access systems, health and nutrition, and hunger. 

Contact: Dr. Mustafa Koc (Coordinator of Centre for Studies in Food Security, and Assistant Professor, Department of Sociology, Ryerson Polytechnic University); E-mail: mkoc@acs.ryerson.ca 

Dr. Jennifer Welsh (Professor, School of Nutrition, Consumer and Family Studies, Centre for Studies in Food Security, Ryerson Polytechnic University); 350 Victoria Street, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M5B 2K3; Phone (416) 979 5000, ext. 6931, fax (416) 979 5204; E-mail: jwelsh@acs.ryerson.ca 
 

The concept of urban forestry emerged from the recognition that the continuous existence of urban forests requires specific policies and management actions which recognize them as a unified system rather than separate, unconnected vegetation.⁽⁵⁴⁾ Simply stated, individual trees must be viewed in the context of urban forests, and urban forests must be considered from the perspective of the entire urban landscape.⁽⁵⁵⁾ Urban forest management, therefore, requires a sound knowledge and understanding of both urban physical environments and ecological processes, and specific social-institutional settings. 

The survival of a city's vegetation is threatened by such environmental pressures as air pollution, limited space due to competition with urban facilities (ie. roads, sewer systems, buildings), compacted soils, glare, etc. In addition, social and legal aspects such as land-use zoning and regulations, land tenure, land values, public awareness and perception, and political climate all contribute to the complexity of sustainable urban forest management. These complexities can, at times, create contradictions. Urban forest management which preserves wildlife habitat, for example, may come into conflict with public hygiene standards. In other cases, vegetative diversity and the lack of order necessary for wildlife habitat may not always suit the scenic appetite of city dwellers.⁽⁵⁶⁾ 

It is imperative to recognize the different, and sometimes incompatible purposes urban forests can serve, as well as the appropriate vegetative structures which are necessary.⁽⁵⁷⁾ The challenge of urban forestry programs and practitioners, therefore, is to understand these complexities and tradeoffs, and to take them into account when attempting to create socially viable and environmentally benign urban forest landscapes. 

As with any other applied science, urban forestry is interdisciplinary in nature, requiring both natural and social science perspectives for its development. It embraces aspects of forestry, urban ecology, atmospheric science, landscape architecture, urban planning, political science, sociology, psychology, biology and even engineering. From its social and ecological functions, for example, urban forests can be studied according to their contribution to a city's air and atmospheric quality, energy and water conservation, biological diversity, environmental education, psychological enjoyment, and community development. From an economic and institutional viewpoint, urban forestry can encompass cost-benefit analyses, specific planning and management, public policies and regulations, land tenure arrangements, and administrative structures. 

Canadian expertise in urban forestry is relatively well developed (in comparison with urban food production). The leading academic institution in urban forestry development is the University of Toronto's Faculty of Forestry and Urban Forests Centre. The Faculty of Forestry offers a specific graduate program on Urban Forests Conservation.⁽⁵⁸⁾ The Urban Forests Centre actively works with other academic, government, and non-government institutions to conduct research and outreach programs on various socio-economic, technological, institutional, and ecological aspects of Canadian urban forest conservation (Case Study 5). 

Another university to incorporate urban forest issues in their curriculum is the Faculty of Forestry, University of Laval. Of the technical colleges, there are Sir Sandford Flemming College and Okanagan University College. The former offers urban tree and park management programs in its School of Natural Resources and the latter offers similar courses in its Horticulture Program. 
 

Case Study 5    Urban Forestry ⁽⁵⁹⁾ 

Institution: Urban Forests Centre, Faculty of Forestry, University of Toronto. 

Mission: To promote and protect treed areas and green spaces in inhabited landscapes across Canada. 

Objectives: (1) to provide one-window access of up-to-date scientifically sound information; (2) to identify knowledge gaps and to facilitate collaborative, problem-based research to fill these gaps; and (3) to encourage the free exchange and integration of information among all Canadian urban forest stakeholders. 

Summary: Some of the Centre's projects are Information Exchange, Cool Communities and Quantitree, York Region Tree Inventory Programme, Count Your Trees In, and Non-commercial Tree Planting. The Information Exchange project includes the development of a database of individuals and groups concerned with issues relating to Canada's urban forests; Newsletters; Requests for Information; and Internet Service. In the Cool Communities and Quantitree project, the Centre was approached by Tree Plan Canada's Ontario Regional Office and the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources to develop a proposal for a project to demonstrate American Forest's Cool Communities Model. The York Region Tree Inventory Programme developed a programme to easily summarise tree information based on the location of the tree and its management history and/or requirements. The main objective of the Count Your Trees In project was to encourage citizens to look at their urban forests with a more critical eye. The Centre's contribution has been the development of a manual for the collection of tree data. In the Count Your Trees In project, the Urban Forests Centre worked in conjunction with Global ReLeaf and Active Living to develop a program that assists community groups conducting tree inventories in their neighbourhoods. 

Contact: Dr. Andrew Kenney (Director), Urban Forests Centre, Faculty of Forestry, University of Toronto; 33 Willcocks Street, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M5S 3BZ; E-mail: kenney@larva.forestry.utoronto.ca 
 

Agriculture in Peri-urban Areas 
For more than three to four decades, the body of literature on peri-urban studies in Canada has been continually growing, with agriculture being one of its major recurrent themes. Peri-urban zones, also called urban fringes, are the "interface zone between concentrated and dispersed population, and between urban and resource production systems."⁽⁶⁰⁾ Urban fringes are a rich study subject since they combine unique social and geographical dynamics where the properties of urban and rural landscapes interact, and where land use conversion rapidly occurs. 

Beesley recently reviewed the development of peri-urban studies in Canada.⁽⁶¹⁾ He noted that urban fringe (later becoming rural and urban fringe) studies emerged as early as the 1950s, largely marked by Ralph Krueger's seminal work on the changing land use patterns of the Niagara fruit belt.⁽⁶²⁾ Beesley described Krueger's work as forming the foundation for later urban fringe research in Canada. 

Urban fringe research has many of its roots in land use analysis.⁽⁶³⁾ Geographers and planners are especially concerned over continuing urban encroachment on rural landscapes and resources. In contrast to popular perception, only 11% (105 m ha) of Canada's agricultural land is suitable for production, and only 43% of this 105 m ha (45.9 ha) can grow crops.⁽⁶⁴⁾ Almost one third of Canada's farmland is located in the country's peri-urban zones.⁽⁶⁵⁾ Approximately 55% of the country's high quality farmland (Canada Land Inventory Classes 1-3) is located within a 161 km radius of Canada's 23 largest urban centres.⁽⁶⁶⁾ Ironically, much of Canada's rapid urban expansion, particularly since 1950, has taken place on this high-quality agricultural land.⁽⁶⁷⁾ 

Warnings over the fragility of Canada's urban fringe productive resources and the value of preserving high-quality agricultural land have often been voiced. Some major concerns are the country's food production ability, its environmental and resource base protection and management, the diminishment of the social and economic life of the countryside, and deteriorating natural and scenic values. 

Studies have demonstrated that a complex set of interacting forces and issues combine to affect agricultural land loss at the urban fringe. Scholars have also studied the various functions which urban fringes can perform, and the policies and management actions required for their preservation. The unit of research analysis varies from individual farmers to community groups, municipalities, provinces, and even to national and international levels. Some agriculture-related themes include farmer's perception and spatial behaviour, urban fringe agricultural dynamics, labour and farm diversification, capital investment, the role of rental of land, etc.⁽⁶⁸⁾ 
 
 The development of peri-urban studies in Canada is an unavoidable consequence of associated research. In relation to agriculture, some prominent scholars can be found in the Geography Department, University of Montreal (Dr. Chris Bryant); Geography Department, Simon Fraser University (Dr. John Pierce); Geography Department, York University (Dr. G. Walker), Scarborough College, University of Toronto (Dr. M. Bunce), Geography Department, University of Western Ontario (Dr. M.J. Troughton) and Trent University Agricultural College (Dr. K. Beesley).⁽⁶⁹⁾ In addition, the Department of Geography and School of Rural Planning and Development, University of Guelph is also recognized for its expertise in rural-urban fringe studies. 

Universities like Waterloo, York and Trent have included courses on rural and urban fringe issues since 1980s.⁽⁷⁰⁾ The Department of Geography, University of Montreal also offers an undergraduate course (and will also be offering a graduate course) on peri-urban areas, in which agriculture is one of the major focuses (Case Study 6).⁽⁷¹⁾ Another landmark of the development of rural-urban fringe studies is the establishment of the Commission on the Sustainability of Rural Systems, to pursue work in urban-fringe agriculture. 

Institution: Department of Geography, University of Montreal 

Course: Les grandes régions métropolitaines (undergraduate and graduate levels) 

Summary: One of the major foci of this course is on urban-fringe agriculture. The course considers the roles and functions of agricultural and open spaces in metropolitan structures and forms. These functions include production, landscape functions, environmental functions, social functions (food security, employment opportunities). It also considers the structure and dynamics of agricultural spaces in different spatial contexts (enclaves, semi-enclaves, broad open spaces); the forms of socio-economic organization and reproduction from agricultural and open spaces; management and planning challenges and opportunities for these spaces; and the link between these spaces and community. 

Contact: Dr. Chris Bryant (Vice-Chair of the Commission on the Sustainability of Rural Systems and Professor Geography Department, University of Montreal); Succursale Centre-Ville, Montreal, Quebec, Canada H3C 3J7; Phone (514) 343 8000; Fax (514) 343 8008. 

Many cities in the South produce a large portion of their food needs. In low-income cities, urban agriculture is even considered as the primary source of employment. In Kenya and Tanzania, for example, two out of three urban households are engaged in food production activities.⁽⁷³⁾ Big cities in China produce 90% of their vegetable consumption⁽⁷⁴⁾, and Kampala devotes 50% of its land for urban food production. Cities such as Addis Ababa, Harare, Dar es Salaam, to name but a few, are among the many southern cities where urban agriculture comprises a large portion of the urban economy.⁽⁷⁵⁾ 

Academic interest and research on international urban agriculture are growing. Research themes are diverse but typically support, explicitly and implicitly, the concept of self-sufficiency and self-sustaining cities. As Smit and Nasr put it, "sustainable cities require an economic process to close the open loop system where consumables are imported into the urban areas and their remainders and packaging dumped as waste into the bioregion and biosphere."⁽⁷⁶⁾ 

Major research themes within urban agriculture are associated with analyses of the various activities, actors, and institutions involved in urban food systems, from pre-production to production, post-production, distribution, consumption and disposal. These interrelated and overlapping components can be viewed from diverse social, economic, technical, political, and environmental dimensions. Unit analyses range from gender to the household, local, municipal, national and international level. Conceptually, urban agriculture is usually placed within the broader context of its potential contribution to overall sustainable development. 

Among Canadian institutions, the International Development Research Centre (IDRC) has been a world leader in supporting research and development of international urban agriculture. The Centre has worked in this area for several decades, and has sponsored basic and applied research for policy and technology intervention. Activities have included: North-South conferences; publications; training and capacity building for NGOs, academia and governmental agencies; outreach projects; regional and global networks for information dissemination; and collaboration among development support agencies.⁽⁷⁷⁾ 

Aside from the IDRC, more and more Canadian institutions and scholars are becoming interested in doing work on this subject. The Canadian Urban Institute (CUI), for instance, is participating in an urban agriculture project in Cuba. The growing interest is also reflected in the increasing amount of student research. When taught, urban agriculture is usually introduced in the context of Third World urbanization and food security (e.g. Department of Geography, University of Ottawa). 

Yet, Canadian academic expertise in this area is still limited. At York University, scholars include Dr. Donald. B. Freeman, Department of Geography and Dr. Christine Furedy, Urban Studies. Dr. Freeman incorporates international urban agriculture in several of his geography courses on Third World development and environment. Dr. Furedy focuses her work primarily on solid waste reuse and its associated health aspects within the context of urban and peri-urban farming in Asian cities, notably Calcutta. She also introduces the topic in her courses on World Urbanization and Planning Sustainable Cities. At the University of Toronto, there is Dr. Joe Whitney of the Department of Geography, who has conducted research on human ecology and solid waste management in Khartoum. 

At the University of British Columbia, international urban agriculture is also becoming popular. This is especially facilitated by the existence of the Centre for Human Settlements, which has conducted urban agriculture projects in Asia (Case Study 7). Dr. Aprodicio A. Laquian, the Director of the Centre, also incorporates the topic of urban agriculture in his graduate courses. 
 

Case Study 7    International Urban Agriculture ⁽⁷⁸⁾ 

Institution: Centre for Human Settlements, University of British Columbia 

Project: Mega-urban Development in China's largest cities (Beijing, Shanghai and Guangzhou); funding from CIDA Centre of Excellence grant; $ 5.8 million for over six years (1991-1997) 

Summary: The project is jointly carried out with Tsinghua University, Beijing; Tongji University, Shanghai; and Zhongsan University, Guangzhou. One of the sectors being studied is water management in relation to urban agriculture. The project is looking at the way Chinese authorities allocate limited water resources to various sectors. Chinese regional and urban development policy provides for a secure food supply for large urban areas. From 20 to 30% of the working population of very large cities are often classified as agricultors and, under the old "household registration system," such agricultors are expected to produce their own grain supply. Urban water supply, therefore, must include provisions for irrigated agriculture aside from water for domestic consumption and industry. The project is also analyzing means/methods by which waste water can be used as an input to urban agriculture and various instruments and measures used by Chinese authorities in managing water for agriculture and urban purposes. This includes the institutional allocation of authority among local and central government agencies, technologies used for water distribution and recycling, and the costs and benefits of retaining highly priced land for urban agriculture. 

Contact: Dr. Aprodicio A. Laquian (Director, Centre for Human Settlements and Professor at University of British Columbia); Centre for Human Settlements, 2206 East Mall, 4th floor, Vancouver, B.C., Canada V6T 1Z3; Phone (604) 822-5254; Fax (604) 822-6164; E-mail: Alaquian@unixg.ubc.ca.  
  

CONCLUSION 
Urban agriculture encompasses a broad range of activities and dimensions which are difficult to conceptualize within any single framework or typology. In the Canadian setting, urban agriculture is not yet well recognized as a field in itself, especially in the sense of food production endeavors. This is mainly due to the still prevailing perception of a rural-urban divide, whereby agriculture is classified as a rural occupation with rural land use. 

By contrast, growing food in cities is usually considered recreational and ephemeral. Other reasons include Canada's short growing season and the still relatively limited interest by federal and provincial agricultural authorities. The latter attitude, in particular, makes it even more difficult to generate research funding. 

Canadian scientific and technological expertise in urban agriculture is patchy, with scholarly research and initiatives scattered among various "traditional" disciplines. On the one hand, this reflects the field's ample horizons and interdisciplinary nature. On the other hand, the general lack of recognition of this subject matter causes relevant studies to use different conceptual frameworks, terms, and language, which renders follow-up studies by other researchers extremely difficult. While overall there is a lack of concentrated research on urban agriculture, some sub-disciplines are attracting considerable interest. Urban forestry, urban entomology and peri-urban agriculture enjoy relatively high attention. Research and development on these subjects is growing, and expertise can be found in several universities and technical colleges. 

Though still limited and relatively isolated from each other, some scholars have begun to pay attention to the urban food production phenomenon. This trend is especially linked to the widespread environmental movement which promotes the concept of sustainable cities. In the international context, Canadian academic interest is also growing, as is reflected by the increasing amount of research from both students and faculty. 

END NOTES 
1. The previous report documented urban agriculture initiatives within Canadian municipalities. See Frojmovic, Michel. "Urban Agriculture in Canada: A Survey of Municipal Initiatives in Canada and Abroad". Cities Feeding People Series, Report 16. International Development Research Centre, Ottawa, Canada. 1996. 

2. Some scientists may do work on animal husbandry in peri-urban areas. However, this is difficult to trace since they usually do not label or distinguish their work according to geographical boundaries. 

3.  Mougeot, Luc. African City Farming from a World Perspective: p.1. In "Cities Feeding People": p.1-24. International Development Research Centre, Ottawa, Canada. 1994. 

4. Lambert, Otten (Director and Professor School of Engineering, University of Guelph). "Letter to the author". August 28, 1996.; M.M. Dillon Limited and Cal Recovery Systems Incorporated. "Composting: A Literature Study": p. 7-1. Queen's Printer for Ontario. 1991. 

5. Lambert, Otten. "Letter to the author". 

6. Lavkulich, L.M. (Director of Institute for Resources and Environment and Professor at Department of Soil Science, University of British Columbia). "Personal communication". July 25, 1996. 

7. Weber, Bev (Compost Program Officer of Residential Compost Program, Greater Vancouver Regional District). "Personal Communication." August, 1996. 

8. This case study is from University of Guelph Homepage (http://www.uoguelph.ca). 

9. Von Baeyer, Edwinna. "Rhetoric and Roses: A History of Canadian Gardening 1900-1930". Fitzhenry and Whiteside Ltd., Markham, Ontario. 1984.; Hough, Michael. "Cities and Natural Process". Routledge, London and New York. 1995. 

10. Hough, Michael. "Cities and Natural Process". 

11. Guppy, Susan (Director and Professor, Department of Urban and Rural Planning, Faculty of Architecture, Technical University of Nova Scotia). "Personal Communication". September 3, 1996. 

12. Hill, Stuart. B (Director of Ecological Agriculture Project, and Professor at Department of Entomology, MacDonald Campus, McGill University). "Personal Communication". August 19, 1996.; Bryant, Chris (Professor, Department of Geography, University of Montreal). "Personal Communication". September 16, 1996. 

13. Hough, Michael. "Cities and Natural Process". 

14. For instance Dr. Gerda Wekerlee, Faculty of Environmental Studies, York University is researching the various types and traditions of urban gardens from different ethnic groups/Canadian immigrants (Wekerlee, Gerda. "Personal Communication". July 30, 1996); Dr. Ian Wight, City Planning, University of Manitoba, is also considering incorporating urban agriculture issues in his regional landscape planning studio (Wight, Ian. "Personal Communication". August 16, 1996). 

15. This information is from University of Saskatchewan homepage (http://www. usaskat.ca) and Okanagan University College homepage (http://www.ouc.bc.ca). 

16. This information is from course outline, City Form and Natural Process, prepared by Michael Hough. 

17. Wagner, Judith in Naimark, Susan (Ed.)." A Handbook of Urban Gardening": p.5. Boston Urban Gardeners, Charles Scribner`s Sons, New York. 1982. 

18. Muirhead, Barbara. "The Contribution of Community Open Space to Placemaking". Major Paper for the degree of Master in Environmental Studies, York University, Ontario, Canada. 1992. 

19. Cosgrove, Sean. "Une histoire de deux villes: Canadian Community Gardening in Montreal and Toronto". Cities Feeding People Series, Report 11. 1994. 

20. Quayle, Moura (Director and Professor Landscape Architecture Program, University of British Columbia)."Personal Communication". September 11, 1996. 

21. Lockeretz, William. Alternative Agriculture. In "New Direction for Agriculture and Agricultural Research: Neglected Dimensions and Emerging Alternatives": p. 291-311. K.A. Dhalberg (Ed.). CAB International. 1986. 

22. Lockeretz in Lampkin, Nicolas. Organic Farming: Sustainable Agriculture in Practise. In "The Economics of Organic Farming: An International Perspective": p.3-9. N.H.Lampkin and Spadel (Eds.). CAB International. 1995. 

23. Hill, Stuart B. and Rod. J. MacRae. Organic Farming in Canada. "Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment". 39: p. 71-84. 1992. 

24. Hill, Stuart B. and Rod J. MacRae. "Organic Farming in Canada". 

25. Lampkin, Nicolas. Organic Farming: Sustainable Agriculture in Practise: p.4-5. In "The Economics of Organic Farming: An International Perspective": p.3-9. N.H. Lampkin and S. Padel (Eds.). CAB International, 1995. 

26. Tate, W. B. The Development of the Organic Industry and Market: An International Perspective. In "The Economics of Organic Farming: An International Perspective": p.11-25. N.H. Lampkin and S. Padel (Eds.). CAB International. 1995 

27. Hill, Stuart B. and Rod J. MacRae. " Organic Farming in Canada". 

28. Hill, Stuart B. and Rod J. MacRae. Developing Sustainable Agriculture Education in Canada. "Agriculture and Human Values": p. 92-95. Fall, 1988. 

29. Hill, Stuart B. and Rod J. MacRae. "Organic Farming in Canada". 

30. Hill, Stuart B. and Rod J. MacRae. "Organic Farming in Canada". 

31. Evans, John. Home Food Production in Newfoundland. "Alternative": p. 19-22. (?) 

32. Hill, Stuart B. "Personal Communication". August 19, 1996. 

33. This information is from EAP brochure and personal communication with Stuart B. Hill, August 19, 1996. 

34. Mollison, Bill. "Permaculture Two: Practical Design for Town and Country in Permanent Agriculture": p.1. Tagari, Australia. 1979. 

35.  Department of Agriculture and Agri-food Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada K1A 0C7. 

36. Kuhn, Monica. Rooftop Resource. "Natural Life". (1). August, 1995. (This article is from CityFarmer Homepage - http://www.cityfarmer.org) 

37. For example Rooftop Gardens Resource Group. 14 Sackville Place, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M4X 1A4. Phone (416) 923 9034. 

38. Anonym. "High Rise Horticulture: Every Twenty Storeys, Perhaps One Good Plot". (?). This article is available at Ecological Agricultural Project, MacDonald Campus, McGill University. 

39. Kuhn, Monica (Architect, specialized in Rooftop Gardens and Permaculture Design) "Personal Communication". September, 1996. 

40. Sijpkes, Peter (Professor, School of Architecture, McGill University). "Personal Communication". September, 1996. 

41. Gilkeson, Linda. Integrated Pest Management: p.1. In "Green Cities: Ecologically Sound Approaches to Urban Space": p.159-168. D. Gordon (Ed.). Black Rose Books, Ltd. Montreal, New York. 1990. 

42. Gilkeson, Linda. "Integrated Pest Management": p. 160. 

43. Brewer, J.W. and R.E. Stevens. Integrated Pest Management of Outdoor Ornamental Plants: p. 441. In "Urban Entomology: Interdisciplinary Perspectives": p. 441-458. G.W. Frankie and C.S. Koehler (Eds.). Praeger, New York. 1983. 

44. Racke, K.D. Urban Pest Control Scenarios and Chemicals: p.3. In "Pesticides in Urban Environments": p.2-9. K.D. Racke and A.R. Leslie (Eds.). American Chemical Society, Washington, D.C. 1993. 

45. Olkowski, W., H. Olkowski, T. Dtlik, N. Heidler, M. Minter, R. Zuparko, L. Lamb, and L. Orthel. Pest Control Strategies in Urban Integrated Pest Management: p.215. In "Pest Control Strategies": p. 215-34. E.H. Smith and D. Pimentel (Eds.). Academic Press, New York. 1978. 

46. Olkowski, W., H. Olkowski, T. Dtlik, N. Heidler, M. Minter, R. Zuparko, L. Lamb, and L. Orthel. "Pest Control Strategies in Urban Integrated Pest Management": p.215. 

47. Hopkins, Raymond. F. Food Security, Policy Options and the Evolution of State Responsibility: p. 11. In "Food, the State, and International Political Economy: Dilemmas of Developing Countries". F. LaMond Tullis and W. Ladd Hollist (Eds.). University of Nebraska Press, London. 1986. 

48. Evans, John. "Home Food Production in Newfoundland". 

49. Koc, Mustafa (Assistant Professor, Department of Sociology, Ryerson Polytechnic University; a member of Toronto Food Policy Council; and the Coordinator of the Centre for Studies in Food Security). "Personal Communication". September 11, 1996. 

50. This information is from Mustafa Koc. "Personal Communication". September 11, 1996. 

51. Jorgensen, Erik. "Urban Forestry in Canada". Faculty of Forestry, University of Toronto, Canada. 1970. 

52. Jorgensen, Erik. "Urban Forestry in Canada": p.16. 

53. Grey, G.W. and F.J. Daneke. "Urban Forestry" (2nd Ed.): p. 14. John Wiley and Sons, U.S.A. 1986. 

54. Jorgensen, Erik. Preservation of Trees and Urban Spaces: Required Policies and Desirable Legislation: p.73. In "Urban Forestry: Myth or Reality (French version: La foresterie urbaine: mythe ou réalité): p.73-86. Association forestière québecoise Inc. and Société internationale d'arboriculture - Québec Inc. University of Laval, Quebéc. Proceedings of the International Urban Forestry Symposium, May 24-27, 1979. 

55. Bradley, Gordon. Urban Forest Landscapes: Integrating Multidisciplinary Perspectives: p.4. In "Urban Forests Landscapes: Integrating Multidisciplinary Perspectives": p. 3-11. G.A. Bradley (Ed.). University of Washington Press, Seattle, London. 1995. 

56. Bradley, Gordon. "Urban Forest Landscapes: Integrating Multidisciplinary Perspectives". 

57. Bradley, Gordon. "Urban Forests Landscapes: Integrating Multidisciplinary Perspectives". 

58. This information is from the Faculty of Forestry, University of Toronto homepage (http://www.utoronto.ca/forest/fachome.htm). 

59. This information is from the University of Toronto homepage (http://www.utoronto.ca). 

60. Russwurm. "The Surroundings of Our Cities":p. 16. Community Planning Press, Ottawa. 1977. 

61. Beesley, K.B. Introduction: Rural and Urban Fringe Studies in Canada: Retrospect and Prospect. In "Rural Urban Fringe Studies in Canada": p. 1-44. K.B. Beesley (Ed.). Geography Department, York University, Geographical Monographs, No.21, 1991. 

62. See Krueger, R.R. Changing Land Use Patterns in the Niagara Fruit Belt. "Transaction of the Royal Canadian Institute". 32 (67): 39-140. 1959. 

63. Beesley, K.B. "Introduction: Rural and Urban Fringe Studies in Canada: Retrospect and Prospect". 

64. Furuseth and Pierce in Pierce, J.T. "Resource and Economic Considerations in the Allocation of Agricultural Land in Peri-Urban Areas: A Canadian Perspective". Elsevier Science Publichers, B.V., Amsterdam. 1983. 

65. Pierce, J.T. "Resource and Economic Considerations in the Allocation of Agricultural Land in Peri-Urban Areas: A Canadian Perspective". 

66. Smit, Barry and Chris Cocklin. Future Urban Growth and Agricultural Land: Alternatives for Ontario. "Ontario Geography": p. 47. (18): p. 47-55. 1981. 

67. Pierce, J.T. "Resource and Economic Considerations in the Allocation of Agricultural Land in Peri-Urban Areas: A Canadian Perspective". 

68. Bryant, Chris (Professor, Department of Geography, University of Montreal and Vice-Chair of the Commission on the Sustainability of Rural Systems). "Personal Communication". September 16, 1996. 

69. Bryant, Chris. "Personal Communication". 

70. Beesley, K. B. "Introduction: Rural and Urban Fringe Studies in Canada: Retrospect and Prospect". 

71. Bryant, Chris. "Personal Communication". 

72. This information is from Chris Bryant. "Personal Communication". 

73. Mangizira Institute in Smit, Jac and Joe Nasr. Urban Agriculture for Sustainable Cities: Using Wastes and Idle Land and Water Bodies as Resources: p. 142. "Environment and Urbanization". 4(2): p. 141-152. October, 1992. 

74. Smit, Jac and Joe Nasr. "Urban Agriculture for Sustainable Cities: Using Wastes and Idle Land and Water Bodies as Resources": p.142. 

75. Tinker, Irene. Urban Agriculture is Already Feeding Cities: p. xi. In "Cities Feeding People: An Examination of Urban Agriculture in East Africa": p. v-xiv. International Development Research Centre, Ottawa, Canada. 1994. 

76. Smit, Jac and Joe Nasr. "Urban Agriculture for Sustainable Cities: Using Wastes and Idle Land and Water Bodies as Resources": p. 141. 

77. For more detailed information on IDRC's initiatives on urban agriculture, contact Luc Mougeot or BrendaLee Wilson, whose addresses are indicated in Appendix 1. See also IDRC's web site home page on Cities Feeding People Program Initiative (http://www.idrc.ca). 

78. Laquian, A.A. "Personal Communication". September 17, 1996.